{"id":91,"date":"2023-02-26T12:00:29","date_gmt":"2023-02-26T12:00:29","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/?page_id=91"},"modified":"2023-02-26T12:00:29","modified_gmt":"2023-02-26T12:00:29","slug":"jamal-al-din-al-afghani-afghanis-life-and-activities-a-synopsis","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/jamal-al-din-al-afghani-afghanis-life-and-activities-a-synopsis\/","title":{"rendered":"Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani :Afghani’s Life and Activities : A Synopsis"},"content":{"rendered":"

Birth<\/strong><\/p>\n

Sha\u2018ba\u0304n, 1254 A.H.\/ October-November, 1838<\/p>\n

Determination of the country of his birth has remained a controversial issue. According to one set of evidences, he was born in Asada\u0304ba\u0304d, Afghanistan, and according to the other, in Asada\u0304ba\u0304d, Iran. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni himself has always stated that he was an Afghan and has signed himself either as \u201cJama\u0304l al-Din al-h\u0323usaini al-Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u201d or \u201cJama\u0304l al-Di\u0304n al-h\u0323usaini.\u201d Some of his close associates and disciples held him as an Afghan.1 On the other hand, several Persian sources support the view that he was born in Asada\u0304ba\u0304d, near Hamadan in Iran.2 According to this opinion Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s family was originally Persian and lived at Asada\u0304ba\u0304d and later Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni traveled to Afghanistan. Evidence to this view is equally weighty. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, aware of this controversy, is reported to have told one of his disciples, Burha\u0304n al-Di\u0304n Qali\u0304j k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, during his last years in Constantinople, that he was an Afghan by birth. He explained that the Iranians deliberately or otherwise mistook him as an Irani since another Shaik\u0332h\u0332 Jama\u0304l al-Di\u0304n, who was as Irani and Ba\u0304bi, visited all those places in Iran where Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni had travelled.3 Regarding Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s assertions that he was an Afghan, Nikki R. Keddie holds that he deliberately concealed his Iranian origin \u201cto present himself to the Muslim world as a Sunni rather than a Shi\u2018i, as the Sunnis formed the majority of Muslims outside Iran, while a Muslim ethnic Persian from Iran would be recognized as almost surely a Shi\u2018i.\u201d4<\/p>\n

Childhood and Early Education<\/strong><\/p>\n

Difference of opinion as to the country he lived in during his early years of education persists.5<\/p>\n

1856-57 First visit to India:<\/strong><\/p>\n

Visit lasted for one year and some months6 or for four years,7 during which he visited several cities and acquainted himself with modern European sciences. In the same year, 1273\/ 1856-57, he visited Mecca for pilgrimage8 and is also reported to have traveled to Iraq, Persia, Baluchistan9 and probably Istanbul.10<\/p>\n

1857-1868-69<\/p>\n

(i) Accounts of supporters of his Afghanistan origin: He entered the service of Amir Dost Muh\u0323ammad k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, the ruler of Afn\u0332istan,11 and after his death that of Sher \u2018Ali. As advisor to Sher \u2018Ali, he is reported to have introduced many reforms in administration: systematized the procedures of court, reorganized army, founded military schools, hospitals, schools, got postage-stamps printed and constructed roads and travelers\u2019 lodges.12 Due to the treacherous role played by the Prime Minister, Rafique k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n left for India in 1282\/ 1865-66.13 Returned after about a year to serve under the new Amir, Muh\u0323ammad A\u2018zam. However, the political conditions got unstable and he left Kabul for good in 1285\/ 1868-69.14
\n(ii) Accounts of supporters of his Iran origin: This account supported by Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s personal papers rules out Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s stay in Afghanistan earlier than 1866.15 According to it, there is no reliable information of Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s activities from 1858 to 1865. Definite earliest presence in Afghanistan is since 1866. He was adviser to A\u2018zam k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n in 1867-68.16 Exiled from Qandhar on December 11, 1868 and left for Bombay.17
\n1869<\/p>\n

In India for a month or from March-April to July, 1869. Proceeded to Cairo where he stayed for about (40) days, during which he met the \u2018ulama\u0304 and visited Azhar. Lectured on Ibn Sina\u2019s Isha\u0304ra\u0304t.18 Left for Constantinople.<\/p>\n

1869-71 Constantinople:<\/strong><\/p>\n

Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni received with respect by high government officials like the Prime Minister, \u2018a\u0304li Pa\u0304sha\u0304, Fua\u0304d Pa\u0304sha\u0304 and Muni\u0304f Effendi, President of Anjuman-i Ma\u2018a\u0304rif (Academy of Sciences). Was made a member of the Academy. Took interest in educational reforms. His views and suggestions welcomed by reformer-statesmen like \u2018a\u0304li Pa\u0304sha\u0304 and Fua\u0304d Pa\u0304sha\u0304, but opposed by the conservatives led by the Shai`k`h al-Isla\u0304m, h\u0323asan Fahmi Effendi.19 Invited to speak at the inauguration of the new University, Da\u0304r al-Fun~un, by Tah\u0323si\u0304n Effendi, the Director of the University. Delivered a lecture in Ramaz\u0324a\u0304n\/November-December, 1870, on Arts.20 Text of the lecture was approved by Turkish officials. His views expressed in the lecture attacked by the orthodox circles, led by h\u0323asan Fahmi Effendi, as heretical. Campaign against Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni. Government asked him to leave Constantinople. Left for Egypt.<\/p>\n

At Constantinople: <\/strong><\/p>\n

First public appearance as a reformer and liberal intellectual and first public attack by orthodoxy.<\/p>\n

1871 \u2013 79: Egypt<\/strong><\/p>\n

Arrived in Cairo in Muh\u0323arram, 1288,21 March 22, 1871.22 Egyptian Prime Minister, Riya\u0304z\u0324 Pa\u0304sha\u0304, conferred stipend of about one thousand qursh (ten Egyptian pounds) per month not for any specific services but as token of respect o an illustrious visitor.23 Became immediately popular among the students and the youth. Lectured on various subjects like mysticism, jurisprudence, scholasticism and physical and rational sciences. First indication of his thinking on uniting the Muslims of India, Afghanistan, Bukhara, etc., on the basis of Islam (Ittih\u0323a\u0304d-i Isla\u0304miyah) against Russia.24 Stressed on intellectual and political awakening of Egyptian youth. For this purpose, encouraged starting journals like Mis\u0323r and al-Tija\u0304rah.25 Himself contributed to these journals. Most probably, wrote his Tatimmah al-Baya\u0304n fi Ta\u0304\u2018rik\u0332h\u0332 al-Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, here. Founded al-h\u0323izab al-Vatani (the nationalist party) for the social betterment, spiritual purification and political awakening of the Egyptian people.26 Was attracted by Freemasonry and joined a lodge.27 In 1876-79 became Grand Master of the Masonic Lodge of Alexandria.28 However, disassociated himself later finding it not useful for his purposes.29 Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and his group worked successfully for the deposition of k\u0332h\u0332edive Isma\u0304\u2019il in favour of his son Tavfi\u0304q. k\u0332h\u0332edive Tavfi\u0304q, contrary to his earlier assurances to Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, apprehensive of the latter\u2019s persistent demands of political reforms and under pressure of Britain and France, expelled him. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and his disciple Abu Tura\u0304b arrested on Ramaz\u0324a\u0304n 5, 1296\/August 27, 1979.30 Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni left Egypt in September, 1879.31<\/p>\n

Impact: Created great impression on the youth and intellectuals as a liberal thinker and political leader. Inspired them to study Islam independent of past authorities, to learn modern sciences and philosophy and to struggle for constitutional government. Faced opposition of the orthodox circles who accused him of holding unorthodox and even heretical views.32 Succeeded in creating a group of young intellectuals which paved the way for the future religious reform movement, Salafiyah, and Egyptian nationalist movement. Shaik\u0332h\u0332 Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abduh, the most prominent among his disciples, later emerged as an outstanding Muslim thinker of modern age.33<\/p>\n

1879 \u2013 1882: India<\/strong><\/p>\n

Reached Bombay via Karachi. After a brief stay in Bombay proceeded to Hyderabad, the capital of the Nizam\u2019s State, the largest Muslim princely state of India. Was surrounded by opponents of Sir Syed Ah\u0323mad Khan of \u2018Aligarh. Was very active in writing in Persian. Wrote his treatise, \u201ch\u0323aqiqat-i Maz\u0332hab-i-Ni\u0304cari v Baya\u0304n-i h\u0323a\u0304l-i Ni\u0304cariya\u0304n\u201d (Refutation of Naturalists), against, what he considered to be, the \u2018naturalist\u2019 thought of Syed Ah\u0323mad k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n and his companions. Wrote almost all of his available Persian articles, covering a wide range of issues like the rise and fall of Islam and Muslims, the negative role of \u2018ulama\u0304, importance of learning modern sciences and philosophy, language as a unifying force in a nation, etc. Was instrumental in starting journals, Mu\u2018allim (edited by Sajjad Mirza) and, Mu\u2018allim-i Shafiq (edited by Muh\u0323ib-i h\u0323usain), from Hyderabad. Did not participate in any political activities, although his anti-British views can be clearly noticed in his articles camouflaged in metaphors and in his sarcastic references to those loyal to Indian British government. Was kept under watch by the government and then in late 1881 taken to Calcutta.34 In Calcutta also he formed a small circle of admirers. Wrote some articles and delivered a lecture at Albert Hall, Madrasah-i\u2018a\u0304liya:35 His movements watched by the government.36 Left Calcutta in late 1882.<\/p>\n

1883 \u2013 85: Paris, London<\/strong><\/p>\n

Arrived in London in January, 1883. Met Wilfred Scawen Blunt. Wrote his first two political articles, \u201cEnglish Policy in Eastern Countries\u201d, and, \u201cThe Reasons for the War in Egypt\u201d, published in the Bee\/al-Nah\u0323la, London, edited by Louis Sambunji. Contributed, \u201cLetter on India\u201d, to the French journal, La Justice. These articles criticized British policy in Egypt, Afghanistan and India and favoured Sultan \u2018Abdul h\u0323a\u0304mid\u2019s policy of uniting the Muslims.37<\/p>\n

Went to Paris during the same month of January, 1883. Wrote an article, \u201cal-Sharq v al-Sharqiyi\u0304n\u201d (the East and the Easterners) in Abu Na|z|za\u0304rah Zarqa\u0304\u2018, edited by James Sanua. Vah\u0323dat al-Isla\u0304miyah became the central theme of his writings. His Egyptian disciples, including \u2018Abduh, re-established contacts with him through letters.<\/p>\n

\u2018Abduh translated Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s treatise on Indian Naturalists into Arabic entitled al-Radd \u2018al al-Dahriyin.<\/p>\n

Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni wrote his rejoinder to Ernest Renan\u2019s article on \u2018Islam and Science\u2019. Both were published in Journal Des Debats. Was involved in the Mahdi uprising in Sudan against Britain. Wrote articles in l\u2018 Intransigeant on the Mahdi, welcoming this movement as a means of uniting Muslims on the basis of Islam against foreign colonialists and imperialists, particularly Britain.
\n\u2018Abduh joined Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni in 1883. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni met Victor Hugo and Oliver Pain.38<\/p>\n

Journal al-\u2018Urvah al-Vu_sqa, edited by Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and \u2018Abduh, started in 1884 probably as the organ of a society, Jami\u2018at al-\u2018Urvah al-Vu_sqa.39 The title of the Journal was taken from the Qur\u2018a\u0304nic verse, \u2018So whosoever disbelieves in the devil believes in Allah, he indeed lays hold on the firmest handle which shall never break\u2019. (2.56). It published articles and comments reflecting as a whole the views of Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni. Some of the important themes and subjects discussed were: domination of the West over the East, particularly that of England over the Muslim lands and India; Mahdi of Sudan; Russian threat to Afghanistan; Islamic teachings; importance of modern sciences; Islamic theological and ethical concepts of social and political significance; comparative study of Christianity and Islam and the rise of the Christians and decline of the Muslims; Free will and Pre-Destination; Vices ad Virtues; dynamism of Qur\u2018a\u0304nic teachings; criticism of Muslim monarchs; Islamic unity (Vah\u0323dat al-Isla\u0304miyah), etc.<\/p>\n

\u2018Abduh left at the end of 1884 for Tunis.<\/p>\n

Talks with British government through W.S. Blunt on steps to solve the problem of British involvement in Mahdi uprising in Sudan with the mediation of Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni. Talks failed. Attempt to prepare a scheme of alliance between England, Turkey, Iran and Afghani\u0304stan against Russia.40 Contact between Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and Sultan \u2018Abdul h\u0323amid established through emissaries. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni supported the Sultan as the symbol of Muslim unity.41<\/p>\n

1886 \u2013 87: Iran and Russia42<\/strong><\/p>\n

Iran (1886-87): Left London and reached B~ushahr in May, 1886, where he stayed for six months. Met Malik al-Mutakallimi\u0304n, later one of the leading figures in the Iranian constitutional movement, Mirza\u0304 Furs\u0323at al-Dawlah Shi\u0304ra\u0304zi and Mirza\u0304 Riz\u0324a\u0304 Kirma\u0304ni, who later, in 1896, assassinated Na\u0304s\u0323iruddi\u0304n Sha\u0304h, the king of Iran. On invitation received through I\u2018tema\u0304d al-Saltanah, Minister of Press and Publication, Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni left for Tehran to see Na\u0304s\u0323iruddi\u0304n Sha\u0304h Qa\u0304cha\u0304r, via Shi\u0304ra\u0304z and Is\u0323faha\u0304n. In Is\u0323faha\u0304n, he met h\u0323a\u0304ji Sayya\u0304h\u0323 and |Zil al-Sulta\u0304n, the Sha\u0304h\u2019s eldest son and governor of Is\u0323faha\u0304n. In Tehran, Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni met the Shah. The Shah got suspicious of him because of his fearless manner and his strong views on reforms. He was forced to leave Iran.
\nRussia, (1883-89): May, 1887, arrived in Moscow. Visit arranged by Katkov, the editor of Moscow Gazette, who probably died the same year. Maharaja Dalip Singh, son of Ranjeet Singh, deposed in 1849 by the British government of India, was also brought by Katkov to Moscow. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and Dalip Singh reportedly worked together for a possible revolt in India against the British.43 Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni wrote articles and gave interviews to Moscow newspapers containing criticism of British activities in Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan.
\nAugust, 1887. Arrived in St. Petersburg. Correspondence with certain Iranian high officials for removing misunderstandings about him. Na\u0304s\u0323iruddi\u0304n Sha\u0304h arrived in St. Petersburg on his way to Europe in 1889. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni failed in his attempt to get a positive response from the Shah. Became more critical of Iranian policies. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni left Russia for Europe in the middle of 1889.
\nMunich, (1889)
\nMet the Iranian Prime Minister who sent Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni back to Russia to explain to the Russian officials the circumstances in which certain concessions (that is, establishment of a national bank, rights of navigation in the river Karun, etc.) were given to Britain, an act which was resented by Russia. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni held talks with the Russian official and got certain proposals for the Iranian government. Left for Tehran.<\/p>\n

Tehran, (Nov., 1889-91)<\/strong><\/p>\n

The Prime Minister did not see him regarding the outcome of the mission. After a while the Russian Govt., due to the delay, withdrew their commitments to Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and, on the other hand, the Iranian Prime Minister also expressed his non-involvement in Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s mission to Russia. The Shah and the British disliked his further stay in Iran. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni turned against the Shah, held secret meetings with the \u2018ulama\u0304 and the youth for the removal of despotism and for a constitutional government.
\nWas ordered to leave Tehran in July, 1890. He took refuge in the shrine of Shah \u2018Abdul \u2018A|zeem and from there continued his attacks on the Shah. Was arrested and taken to Turkish border in January, 1891.<\/p>\n

Early 1891<\/strong><\/p>\n

Expelled to Basra by the Ottoman government. Wrote a letter to the Iranian Mujtahid, h\u0323a\u0304ji h\u0323asan Shi\u0304ra\u0304zi, against the Tobacco Concession granted by the Sha\u0304h to Imperial Tobacco Corporation owned by Britain, which played a vital role in the launching of a mass movement led by the Iranian \u2018ulama\u0304 against the Concession which was ultimately cancelled.44
\n1892, London
\nArrived in autumn. Wrote articles in Qa\u0304n~un (edited by Prince Malkam _k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, ex-Minister of Iran in Britain) and other journals against the Shah and Iran government.45 Met E.G. Browne. Invitations from Sulta\u0304n \u2018Abdul h\u0323ami\u0304d to visit Istanbul through intermediaries, from February, 1892.<\/p>\n

1892 \u2013 1897: Istanbul<\/strong><\/p>\n

Arrived in the summer of 1892. Received with due respect by the Sultan and the Turkish religious elite. Was surrounded by Turkish and Iranian intellectuals and reformers including \u2018Abdul Qa\u0304dir al-Mag\u0332h\u0332ribi, Muh\u0323ammad Pa\u0304sha\u0304 Mak\u0332h\u0332z~umi (who later published his k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304t\u0324ira\u0304t based on Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s views, recorded during this period), Mirza\u0304 a\u0304qa\u0304 k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n Kirma\u0304ni, Shaik\u0332h\u0332 Ah\u0323mad R~uh\u0323i, Ibra\u0304hi\u0304m al-Muwailihi, \u2018Abdullah Nadi\u0304m of Egypt, etc. His main activity, encouraged and supported by the Sultan, was to implement his scheme of Vah\u0323dat al-Isla\u0304miyah, by writings letters to the \u2018ulama\u0304 of Muslims countries, particularly of Iran. Stepped up his campaign against the Sha\u0304h of Iran. The Sha\u0304h was ultimately killed Mirza\u0304 Riz\u0324a\u0304 Kirma\u0304ni, a disciple of Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, on May 1, 1896.<\/p>\n

Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s relations with the Sultan deteriorated due to Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s uncompromising political views and his association with the revolutionaries. This was further aggravated due to the animosity of \u2018Abdul Huda, an important religious leader, who accused Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni of holding heretical views. A chance meeting between Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni and the visiting new k\u0332h\u0332edive of Egypn Istanbul in the summer of 1895, gave rise to the suspicion that Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, despairing of the Sultan, was working for the latter\u2019s Caliphate. Fallen from grace, he was kept under watch. Tried to leave Istanbul and seek British protection but failed. Died on March 9, 1897.<\/p>\n

References<\/h4>\n

1 Risa\u0304lah, p. 2; Ta\u2018rikh, i, pp. 27ff; Masha\u0304hi\u0304r, ii. pp. 52-54; Shakeb Arsala\u0304n, h\u0323a\u0304z\u0324ir al-\u2018a\u0304lam al-Isla\u0304mi, I, Cairo, 1343 A.H., pp. 199-200; Zu\u2018ama\u0304, pp. 60ff; \u2018Abd al-Rah\u0323ma\u0304n al-Rafi \u2018i, \u2018As\u0323r Isma\u0304\u2018i\u0304l, ii, Egypt, 1932, p. 150; Mah\u0323m~ud Qa\u0304sim, Jama\u0304l al-Di\u0304n al-Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, Egypt, n.d., pp. 9ff.; Sh, p. 100; g\u0332h\u0332ula\u0304m Jila\u0304ni A\u2018|zami, Majallah-i Ka\u0304bul, Kabul, July 7, 1931, pp. 21ff.; a\u0304_sa\u0304r, p. 1ff., Goldziher, Encyclopaedia of Islam, art. Djemal al-Din al-Afg\u0332h\u0332ani; General Na\u0304dir Kha\u0304n, ex-king of Afg\u0332h\u0332~nistan, on the authority of Shakeb Arsala\u0304n and M~usa\u0304 Ja\u0304rulla\u0304h, asserts that Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni was an Afghan. He points out Afg\u0332h\u0332~ni\u2019s appointment as the minister of Ami\u0304r A\u2018zam as enough proof of his being a Sunni (written statement given to Qa\u0304z\u0324i \u2018Abdul g\u0332h\u0332affa\u0304r) a\u0304_sa\u0304r, pp. 6-7 Ernest Renan, who met Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni in Paris in 1883, describes him as \u201can Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n\u201d who \u201cbelongs to those energetic races of upper Iran bordering upon India, in which the Aryan spirit still persists.\u201d William G. Hutchinson, The Poetry of Celtic Races and other Studies, London, 1896, p. x; Jari\u0304dah-yi Mus\u0323avvirah, Mat\u0324ba\u2018 _Saba\u0304t, Istanbul, quotes Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni, \u201cI do not have any need to relate myself to any one nation (millat). I am an Afghan,\u201d a\u0304_sa\u0304r, p. 19
\n2 For all such evidences and discussion on the subject, Cf. Biography, Chap. 2 and Appendix I.
\n3 Millat, Constintinople, Tashri\u0304n Ih\u0323a\u0304ni, 1326\/1926, quoted a\u0304_sa\u0304r, pp. 18-19
\n4 Biography, p. 428
\n5 For opinions supporting his stay in Iran, see Biography, Chap. 2, for opinions supporting his Afg\u0332h\u0332anistan stay, see Risa\u0304lah, pp. 2-3; Masha\u0304hi\u0304r, ii, p. 53; E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 4-5
\n6 Risa\u0304lah, p. 3
\n7 Biography, pp. 22ff.
\n8 Risa\u0304lah, p. 2
\n9 A\u2018zami, op. cit., pp. 31-32
\n10 Biography, p. 32
\n11 Risa\u0304lah, p. 3. He also accompanied the Amir during his compaign against Herat in 1278\/1861-62. Ibid.
\n12 A\u2018zami, op. cit., pp. 34-36
\n13 Ibid. for Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s reference to Rafiq k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, see Mah\u0323m~ud \u2018Ali k\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n, Ta\u2018rik\u0332h\u0332-i Afgha\u0304nista\u0304n, Urdu translation of Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s Tatimmah al-Baya\u0304n fi Ta\u2018ri\u0304k\u0332h\u0332 al-Af_g\u0332h\u0332a\u0304n , Lahore, circa 1342 A.H., pp. 101, 104
\n14 Risa\u0304lah, p. 5
\n15 Biography, pp. 32ff.
\n16 Ibid., pp. 37ff.
\n17 Documents, p. 9
\n18 Risa\u0304lah, p. 5
\n19 Ibid., Biography, p. 4ff. for other sources.
\n20 Risa\u0304lah, pp. 5-7; Browne, op. cit., pp. 6-7; Biography, Ibid.
\n21 Risa\u0304lah, p. 7
\n22 Browne, op. cit., p. 7
\n23 Risa\u0304lah, pp. 7; Jurji Zaida\u0304n, op. cit., ii, p. 56
\n24 Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s letter to a Turkish dignitary, written most probably during his stay in Egypt. Biography, pp. 129ff; Documents, photos 26-27.
\n25 Mah\u0323m~ud Qa\u0304sim, op. cit., p. 26; Jacob M. Landau, Parliament and Parties in Egypt, Tel-Aviv, 1953, p. 86; Zu\u2018ama\u0304, pp. 68-70.
\n26 Mahalla\u0304ti, op. cit., pp. 56ff.; Risa\u0304lah, pp. 26ff.; Al-Mana\u0304r, XI, p. 199
\n27 Statement of \u2018Abduh, quoted, SH, p. 491; Zu\u2018ama\u0304, pp. 73-74; Ta\u2018ri\u0304kh, i, pp. 45-47; Mah\u0323m~ud Qa\u0304sim, op. cit., p. 40; Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abd al-Falla\u0304h, Ashhar Masha\u0304hi\u0304r Udaba\u0304 al-Sharq, I, Egypt, n.d., pp. 45-46
\n28 Landau, op. cit., p. 82
\n29 W.S. Blunt, Ibid.
\n30 Zu\u2018ama\u0304, p. 76
\n31 Risa\u0304lah, Ibid.; Zaida\u0304n, op. cit., p. 57
\n32 For such criticism, Cf. Sali\u0304m Effendi \u2018Anh~uri, Sehr Ha\u0304r~ut, Damascus, 1303\/1885, pp. 176-85. The author, however, withdrew his criticism when \u2018Abduh explained Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s religious outlook to him. Risa\u0304lah, pp. 11-13; Biography, pp. 81ff.
\n33 For Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni\u2019s impact on \u2018Abduh, see Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abduh, Risa\u0304lah al-Tawh\u0323i\u0304d, trans., B. Michel and M. Abdel Razik, Paris, 1925, Introduction; Charles C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt, London, 1933; A. Albert Kudsi-Zadeh, The Legacy of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni in Egypt, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Indian University, Blommington, 1964; Ta\u2018ri\u0304kh; Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abduh, Muz\u0332a\u0304kira\u0304t al-Ima\u0304m Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abduh, ed. Ta\u0304hir al-Tenali, Cairo, 1963, pp. 34-36; Ibra\u0304him Hilba\u0304wi, \u201cAhamm h\u0323adith Aththara fi Majra\u0304 Haya\u0304ti,\u201d al-Hila\u0304l, XXXVIII, I, Dec., 29, pp. 138-40; Mah\u0323m~udul h\u0323aq, Muh\u0323ammad \u2018Abduh: A Study of a Modern Thinker of Egypt, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1970, Chap. II; for various aspects, Cf. Biography, pp. 81ff.
\n34 Risa\u0304lah, p. 8; W.S. Blunt, Gordon at Khartoum, London, 1911, p. 40
\n35 M, p. 88
\n36 W. S. Blunt, India under Ripon, London, 1909, pp. 13
\n37 Biography, p. 184
\n38 Ibid., pp. 213-14
\n39 Al-Mana\u0304r, VIII, p. 455
\n40 W. S. Blunt, Gordon at Khartoum , London, 1911, pp. 467-68
\n41 Biography, Chap. 9
\n42 For information on his visit to Iran and Russia, Cf. Sharh\u0323, pp. 39-44; Mahdi Malikza\u0304deh, Ta\u2018ri\u0304k\u0332h\u0332-i Inqila\u0304b-i Mashr~ut\u0324iyat-i Ira\u0304n, Vol. 1, Tehran, n.d., p. 191; TBI, pp. 61-62; E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 42-43; Biography, Chap. 10
\n43 Biography, pp. 283ff.
\n44 For full text of the letter, Cf. TBI, pp. 68-71; Ta\u0304\u2018ri\u0304k\u0332h\u0332, i, pp. 56-62; A summary with translation of important portions in E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 15-21; Biography, pp. 342-47
\n45 Article, \u201cThe Reign of Terror in Persia,\u201d Contemporary Review, Feb., 1892; his interview in Pall Mall Gazette, Dec. 19, 1891; appeals Iranian \u2018ulama\u0304 to depose the Shah, z\u0324iya\u0304 al-k\u0332h\u0332afiqain, London, Vol. 1, 1892; his letter known as h\u0323amlat al-Qur\u2018a\u0304n, addressed to Iranian \u2018ulama\u0304, op. cit., March, 1, 1892. For full text of the same, Cf. TBI, pp. 72-74; Ta\u0304\u2018ri\u0304kh, i, pp. 63-68; a summary appears, E.G. Browne, op. cit., pp. 24-26.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Birth Sha\u2018ba\u0304n, 1254 A.H.\/ October-November, 1838 Determination of the country of his birth has remained a controversial issue. According to one set of evidences, he was born in Asada\u0304ba\u0304d, Afghanistan, and according to the other, in Asada\u0304ba\u0304d, Iran. Afg\u0332h\u0332a\u0304ni himself has always stated that he was an Afghan and has signed himself either as \u201cJama\u0304l […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-91","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/91","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=91"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/91\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":92,"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/91\/revisions\/92"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.anwarmoazzam.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=91"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}